Liturgical inculturation by Xavier James L.S.

LITURGICAL INCULTURATION

XAVIER JAMES           

Introduction

Liturgy is a public worship.  It is the worship of the people.  Christian liturgy is focused on Christ and Bible.  There are many signs and symbols used in order to reach the divine by human actions.  The cultures of the people are to be taken into consideration in the divine worship. 

Ecclesia in Asia

Pope John Paul II on 6^th November 1999 in Delhi released the synod document on Church in Asia.  In that documents he has highlighted the urgent need for inculturation of the liturgy as a paramount importance.  It is the task of the pastors in virtue of their charism, to guide the process of inculturation.  But the process must involve the entire people of God, since the life of the Church as a whole share the faith that is being proclaimed and appreciated.  As the culture is transformed, so too are persons and societies transformed by it (21).  Faith cannot be confined with the limits of understanding and expression of any single human culture, for it transcends these limits and indeed challenges all cultures to rise to new hights of understanding and expression.  It’s a pressing need of the local church in Asia to present the mystery of Christ to their peoples according to their cultural patterns and ways of thinking (20). 

Liturgy is a decisive means of evangelization.  Popular devotions and religious festivals are plenty and flourishing in our culture.  Hence we need to promote it cautiously. While doing the process of inculturation we need to replace the cultural signs and symbols with renewed meaning.  Moreover, inculturation of the Gospel involves the entire people of God; the role of laity is of paramount importance.  It is they, above all who are called to transform the society by infusing the mind of Christ into the mentality, customs, laws and structures of the secular world in which they live (22).  When we want to bring any change in the liturgy we need to concientize, consult the people, because people’s participation in this regard is valuable.           

Liturgical Inculturation

Inculturation is concerned with every aspect of the Church’s life.  Eucharist being the source and summit of Christian life has to be inculturated.  The richness of the Gospel must be experienced in all its variety in all areas of Christian life.  Liturgy is the Supreme manifestation of the mystery of the church and most efficacious means of fulfilling her mission.  Celebration of the liturgy in indigenous forms is of principal importance.  Through the process of dialogue and exchange between the Gospel and culture, local expressions of worship emerge.  Thus inculturation of liturgy and sacraments become an integral element in the whole process of the encounter between the Gospel and Culture.  In the past various groups had different liturgies: Antiochean, Alexandrian, Chaldean and Roman liturgies.  As the time passed by the Roman liturgy gained dominance and became model culture.  Roman Liturgy was transplanted into the new areas that were evangelized.  This resulted in returning to the one old culture rather than symbolizing the mystery.  Here I would like to make a mention of the difference between the Rituals and Symbols.

Rituals and symbols

Rituals are fixed and conditioned by external prescriptions without taking into account the context of the persons who perform them in a uniform manner in all situation and circumstances.  Symbols emerge from the culture and life style of the person who perform them and they vary according to situation and circumstances. 

Why liturgical inculturation is ineffective?

Vatican II had brought about change in understanding Liturgy in its liturgical constitution Sacrosanctum Concilium in 1963.  Many efforts have been taken to transform the liturgy but were not so successful as it should have been.  There has been a certain resistance to liturgical and sacramental inculturation in many parts of Asia, India and Gujarat.  When we analyze and see the reason we recognize that it was the teachings of Vatican II has not widely known to many faithful.  Ordinary faithful were not sufficiently enlightened on the need of inculturation of Christian worship.  How can we bring about any changes when people are not aware that there is a need for change?  It must come from the people themselves as we educate and catechize them in view of change.  At times some imprudent and insensitive pastors have introduced changes in this regard without instructing the people about their significance.  It needs an adequate amount of catechesis and preparation.

Apostolic Church has given the right and duty to the bishop’s conference to inculturate the liturgy according to the local culture.  Fr. Michael Amaladoss mentions how it was difficult to do the process of inculturation in the liturgy.  The bishops who are supposed to take a leading role have often been inactive.  Fr. Amaladoss together with experts had drawn out a draft on Indian Rite Mass but it was rejected on account of it being too Brahminical.  The second draft was ready, experimented, evaluated by the CCBI and sent to the Holy See for approval but so far no solution has come.  He says that it was a painful process. 

Awareness is needed

A very important area of inculturation is the liturgy of the Christian Community.  Liturgy expresses the faith of the church.  Liturgy must be the outcome of the faith experience in a particular cultural environment.  Spontaneity will spring forth from life of faith lived fully in the context of the culture and the life-realities of the people.  It is the responsibility of the whole church to inculturate the liturgy and no one can shirk away from this responsibility.  We need to become conscious of the actuality that the existing culture is imposed from outside, unrelated and unconsciously accepted one.  This is an estrangement of the liturgy from our culture.  This faith experience is superficial and does not affect life very deeply.  Any experiments in liturgy done should reflect the faith of the community.  We should be alert that mere replacement with another set, will lose its meaning.  This is a gradual process that emerges from within a believing human community, living and struggling in a particular context and culture.               

What shall we do?

Popular religiosity should be encouraged but at times they are infused with superstitious beliefs and error, which had to be paid attention to.  Proper understanding of Christian mystery not with mere intellectual explanation but adequate catechesis should be of supreme significance.   Liturgy introduces certain continuity.  This is not copying the liturgies of another church but by giving new expressions to the same mystery.  As the early Christians borrowed many religious traditions we also need to borrow from our own culture to make the liturgy more meaningful.  There was no Christian tradition as such.  Context of the liturgy has to be taken into account.  Any dichotomy between life and liturgy should be avoided.  We need to pay attention to sociological implication while inculturating.  Some symbols and signs are harmless whereas some are discriminative.  Eg. Dalits oppose classical Hinduism; they look at it as a means for domination and oppression.  They do not want to be reminded of the bitter past.  They oppose Aarati and Chandan Tilak.  But it is ridiculous and unreasonable because they are the social and cultural customs not brahminical. 

In the dioceses common approach should be upheld, where people would be conscientized on the need of liturgical and sacramental inculturation in order to deepen their faith experience.  Pastors should consider this as a very important and holy area of the pastoral concern and implant it with zeal and prudence, which this delicate sector of Christian life requires. 

What have we done?

To some extent we have succeeded in inculturation eg. Architecture of Churches, chapels and prayer halls are made in keeping the local culture and context in mind.  The Missal, Bible and Lectionaries have been translated in the native language.  Hymns, Bhajans and prayers are being said and sung in the vernacular.  Christian marriages and funerals are very much appreciated by the non-catholics since there is prayerful atmosphere and local culture is prized as a valuable one.  Postures like folding of hands and bowing, squatting for mass, removing footwear before entering the church or chapel are very evident our time with regard to inculturation.  In Gujarat we keep up the pilgrimages and many people come to these feasts with genuine devotion such as Khambholaj, Vadodara, Anklav, Korvi, Unteshwari, Deesa.  The feasts are also are fixed according to the seasons.  In this manner we have tried, experimented and implemented the liturgical feasts according to the local culture.

Conclusion

We need to take the sociological implications into account when we face success or failures in liturgical inculturation.  Some people are ready for it with proper awareness and knowledge whereas some are reluctant and protesting.  I came across a catholic CID police officer who told me that ‘you south Indians come here in Gujarat and make our Christianity into Hinduism’.  When I asked for clarifications he said that in his visit to south India once, he found people gathered into a church in the evening and they were taking aarati in this way the Hindu traditions are brought into Catholicism.  Thus there are such people with insufficient knowledge of Christianity and their own culture who oppose any changes brought in the liturgy.  There are people who want to forget the bitter past, which their ancestors had treaded in and so they resist.  There are some people who want to take security in the Roman garb and liturgical rule in order to be on the good side of the hierarchy due to the financial help they receive.  Some people grapple with understanding and change.  Still there is hope with proper catechism and reinforcement of the same.  We also need to keep in mind that while inculturation we need to give due respect to the divine worship.  We need to safeguard the dignity of divine worship.  We should not bring changes for the change sake whereas dignity and culture should be revered.  Thus, amidst many trials, we have come to this stage of inculturating the liturgy and it will be possible if we are consistent and sensitive.   

First Holy Communion of Bercy with Fr. Benzi & Wedding Anniversary of Sheba & Mani

Nostra Aetate of Vatican II document - Xavier James L.S.

DECLARATION ON THE RELATION OF THE CHURCH TO NON-CHRISTIAN RELIGIONS (NOSTRA AETATE)

XAVIER JAMES.   

1. Coping up with present

In our time, when human beings come close to each other, the church also fells convinced of coming closer to non-Christian religions.  She wants to focus on what is common so to promote fellowship with others.  All form one community and all have one destiny in common i.e. God.  Human beings have many questions in common such as, man/woman, meaning and purpose of life, good and sinful behaviour, suffering, happiness, death, after death etc.

2. Acknowledging faith and way of life

In the history and even today many people have had awareness of hidden powers, recognition of Supreme Being in their lives.  Hinduism and Buddhism explore and try to apprehend the divine mystery so to lead a meaningful life.  Catholic Church rejects nothing of what is true and holy in these religions but recognizes a ray of truth, which enlightens all men.  Church is duty bound to proclaim Christ and enter with prudence and charity into discussion and collaboration with others. 

3. Working together for a better world

The church has high regard for Muslims, who have the faith from Abraham, accept Jesus as prophet and honour Virgin Mother and worship one true God, the creator.  Although there were quarrels and dissentions, the church pleads to forget the past and work together for the good of the humanity to promote Justice, Liberty and Peace.

4. Appreciating Jews and proclaiming that death of Jesus was God’s plan

Church recognizes that God revealed himself among the Jews and Christ has reconciled the Jews and gentiles and made them one.  Church acknowledges the Jewish origin of Patriarchs, Mary, Apostles and early disciples, who proclaimed the Gospel of Christ to the World.  Since Christians and Jews have common spiritual heritage, it is time to understand and appreciate each other in friendly theological discussions.  The Jews shouldn’t be blamed for the past or rejected.  The church does not encourage any hatred, persecution and anti-Semitic attitude towards Jews.

5. Protecting and respecting human persons

Since we are the sons and daughters of one God, we all are brothers and sisters, therefore treat one another with love.  We should not have any discrimination towards any individual or group but should safeguard the dignity of each human person.  Church begs the Christian faithful to be at peace with all men and women and be true sons and daughters of Father, who is in heaven.

Birthday 2012 - wishes by Cardinal, Parishioners, Brother's family & Birthday Eucharist at Holy Name

Eco-spirituality in Prophets - Xavier James L.S.

ECO-SPIRITUALITY IN PROPHETS

XAVIER JAMES L.S. 

Introduction

Prophets were called by a personal God for a particular mission at a particular time.  These prophets had an aesthetic sense towards nature.  They often taught the people through the examples from nature.  Nature played a significant role in the prophetic teaching.  In the Bible the creation or nature is given very important place. 

God is the creator

Yahweh is the creator of everything and everyone including nature and human beings.  Prophets Jeremiah and Isaiah confirm this truth through their prophecies.  They praise God for the wonder of his creation (Jer.32:17-20, Is.37:16, 42:5).  Yahweh is the universal king and judge and his jurisdiction extends the ends of the universe and to all the peoples.  Yahweh’s love extends to all creation and nature.  Yahweh is actively present in the cosmos i.e. in the nature and history (Is.6:3). 

Human and nature have the same origin and the same destiny.  Further nature is the cradle, which takes care of the humans.  God relates with nature in a similar way as he relates with the humans.  He makes covenant with human as well as with nature.  Prophet Hosea notes, “I will make for you a covenant on that day with the wild animals, the birds of the air, and the creeping things of the ground and I will abolish the bow the sword and war from the land; and I will make you lie down in safety” (2:18). 

In the covenantal relationship between Yahweh and Israel, nature also plays a major role.  Sin of human disturbs the human relationship with God as well as with nature.  Prophet Jeremiah says, “I brought you into a plentiful land to eat its fruits and its good things.  But when you entered you defiled my land, and made my heritage an abomination” (2:7, 9:10, 12:4,11).  Prophet Hosea also notes in 4:3.  The land is God’s and it is to be protected and safeguarded.  When true religion is practiced, when the land is full of knowledge of the Lord, then there is cosmic harmony (Is.11:6-9).  This cosmic harmony brings the creation into its fullness.   

Judgement because of sin 

The earth is defiled due to the disobedience of the inhabitants.  The human sin, transgressions, breaking of the covenant has also affected the nature and the cosmos as a whole.  Prophet Isaiah says, “The earth dries up and withers, the world languishes and withers; the heavens languish together with the earth.  The earth is polluted under its inhabitants; for they have transgressed laws, violated the statutes, broken the everlasting covenant.  Therefore a curse devours the earth, and its inhabitants suffer for their guilt; therefore the inhabitants of the earth dwindled, and few people are left” (24: 4-6).  The whole chapter gives the account of how through the human sin the land suffers.  In our very days we experience that due to our human sin such as greed and selfishness the nature and whole of creation suffer.  We alienate ourselves little by little from the creation through our misdeeds.    

Prophet Jeremiah says, “For the land is full of adulterers; because of the curse the land mourns, and the pastures of the wilderness are dried up” (23:10).  Due to today’s industrialization and its sending out the wastes we pollute the air and water.  The result is that our future generation will have to face the consequences.  Moreover our earth will slowly become desolate.  Prophet Ezekiel comments, “ I will make the land desolate because they have acted faithlessly, says the Lord God” (15:8).  We are supposed to be the caretakers of the land but we in turn afflict and manipulate the earth by becoming like butchers.  These sins of ours will slowly but surely destroy our planet.  Prophet Haggai also notes such an account (1:11). 

The Land cries out to God

Jeremiah notes, “How long will the land mourn, and the grass of every field wither? For the wickedness of those who live in it the animals and the birds are swept away” (12:4).  Prophet Joel also remarks on this fact (1:18).  When the creation cries out to God, the Lord will surely listen and come to its aid.  We believe that in creation God is present.  God suffers with creation, since he is a compassionate God.  

The Land is blessed when people are righteous 

Prophet Isaiah says, “ If you are willing and obedient, you shall eat the good of the land” (1:19, 32:15).  Prosperity is always believed to be a blessing from the Lord.  When a person is good to creation then the creation reciprocates the same.  It is by our goodness we become God’s own.  Prophet Ezekiel says, “The trees of the field shall yield their fruit, and the earth shall yield its increase.  They shall be secure on their land” (34:25,27-28).

Prophets are guardians of Nature

The prophets were very much aware of the fact that the earth will also punish those who by their extravagant consumption oppress the poor and destroy the earth (Joel:1:4).  Some people live in lavish manner not caring for the earth and creation as a whole, which becomes a sin.  Today such a manner of living has become a normal observable fact.  Prophets often challenged the political and religious leadership of their times.  For this reason they were often not welcomed by the people, who were caught up with institution like kings and priests in this view.  Prophet Amos was seen as a trouble maker (7: 10-14).  In fact the prophets were called to be sensitive to the ‘signs of the times’, and they were so.  Prophet Isaiah says, “I will make a way in the wilderness and rivers in the desert”(43:19).  Through this God will make everything new.  Yahweh’s power to heal, to redeem and to restore the well being and harmony, balance and faithfulness of creation was present at the dawn of creation before humans ever existed (Is. 11:6-9).

 Conclusion

The prophets also explicate the solidarity between the humans and nature.  When God judges the humans, the cosmic elements are called to be the witnesses (Is.1: 2, Jer.4:28, Mic.6:1-2).  The land mourns and suffers with the human in their experiences of tragedies (Jer.4:28, 14:2-6).  Similarly the nature is called to rejoice when the humans live in justice and peace (Amos.9:13, Is.44:23).  Human sin is something to do with today’s ecological crisis.  Global warming is a result of misuse of nature by human beings.  As it is said, ‘As you sow, so you reap’.  We reap the results in too much of rain, floods, earth quakes, land sliding, sea water covering and taking the land and houses, Tsunami, cyclones, faloons etc.  Tragically the growth of science, technology and industrialization is destroying nature as the object of human greed.  This situation needs to be altered by human efforts by going for a sustainable development of the earth’s resources.  Hence it is high time to be aware of what we do to the whole of creation, and how we use the abundance of nature.

Surprise Birthday party 2012, I thank God for all those who loved & cared for me.

My understanding of Mission - Xavier James L.S.

MY UNDERSTANDING OF MISSION IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

XAVIER JAMES L.S.

(Based on the article on Evolution of the understanding of Christian identity in the course of the centuries Fr. Jacob Kavunkal)

INTRODUCTION

It is an effort to find out the self-understanding of the church and mission.  This article shows the self-perception of the Church behind its missionary outreach down through the centuries.  There is co-relation between the model of the church we hold and the way we approach mission.  Mission is an indicator of the different understandings of the identity of the church.

EARLY CHURCH – VOCATIONAL MODEL

Easter experience is the most important incident in this model.  Easter is the point of connection between the ministry of Jesus and the mission of his followers.  It was a reform movement within Judaism and they were Christian Israelites.  The mission expanded as these Christians migrated from one place to another.  The self-understanding grew as they realized that they were not only Israelites but as new humanity originated after the last Adam (Rom.8: 29) and first born of all humanity (1Cor.15: 45-49).  The community’s goal and identity has been increasingly perceived as an agent to create a new humanity that is conformed to Christ (Gal.4: 19).  The form of Christ is being the self-giving love.  This self-giving love was the source of its identity and mission.  The mystery of the transformation of humanity begins with Christ’s self-emptying love.  It was a pre-institutional religious movement and minority in its nature.  It was a mission measured by being rather than doing.  The humble, the ignorant, the poor, women and others were the major agents of missions before becoming state religion.  Mission was an overflow of experience (1Jn.1: 1-3).  The community was known for its high sense of moral behaviour.

MARTYRDOM MODEL

The early church was a small ghetto in an essentially hostile society.  Apostles were martyred and many others shared their fate.  To be a Christian was almost automatically to risk martyrdom.  The followers were committed to Christ.   Their commitment and courage attracted many more.  Tertulian claimed that the church of the first 100 years was born of the blood of the martyrs. 

THE IMPERIAL MODEL

For the first 400 years Christianity was only 10%in the Roman Empire and was still a persecuted minority.  It was risking being a Christian who had to face various accusation and persecutions.  Christianity found favour with the Roman Emperor Constantine (274-337).  In 312 Christians got religious freedom by the Edict of Milan.  Prior to Constantine, it involved a risk to be Christian but now it became dangerous not to be a Christian.  Baptism was considered not as commitment to Christ but as distinguishing from the pagans.  It was depaganization and christianization.

MONASTIC MODEL

Some people left possessions, sexual enjoyment behind and became monks and devoted themselves to prayer, fasting and studying of the Scripture.  Monks stayed close to people and adapted themselves to the people’s life style and work.  Monasteries became cradles of European civilization.  The monastic spirit of the later middle ages reached its full flowering in the founding of the Carmelite (1185), Dominican (1209) and Franciscans (1215) orders. 

CONQUEST MODEL

Just as Constantine in Rome Charlemagne (771-814) was instrumental in France in spreading Christianity.  Pope Leo III was encouraging Charlemagne and blessed him.  In the middle ages only one continuing institution was the Church.  It influenced the social, political and cultural structures of Europe. 

THE CRUSADERS

The Cluny movement animated the crusades.  Taking the cross against the Muslim infidels was seen as a form of spiritual perfection equivalent to the monastic life.  It was not to convert the Islam but to defeat them and also to liberate the sacred Lands that had fallen to the Muslims.

THE COLONIALISTIC MODEL

Through his bull the then Pope divided the world outside Europe between Spain and Portugal.  He conferred on them the power over their colonies politically and ecclesiastically.  Colonialism and mission were interdependent.  The right to have colonies carried with it the duty to Christianize the colonized.  They were merchants, military force and missionaries.  In Latin America 35-45 millions of indigenous people were killed during colonization/evangelization.  Some times the whole tribe was wiped out. It was forgotten that free human beings could only accept the Gospel.  Francis Xavier traveled from Philippines to Japan to baptize as many as possible because he wanted to save them from the fire of hell.  Mateo Ricci (1552-1610) inculturated the church according to the Chinese practices.  Initially Rome supported for integrating Confucius in Christian practices but later it was forbidden.  Robert de Nobili (1577-1656) tried to penetrate the message of Christ in Hindu manner by adapting the social customs.  Still we are only trying and not succeeding.  Now the Ecumenical movement has come to the forefront. 

CONCLUSION

The early Christian community had expressed their faith in the risen Christ.  They proclaimed that Risen Lord as the promised messiah and second Adam in whom all racial and ethnic separations stand cancelled.  They saw themselves as witnesses to what God had done and is doing in Jesus Christ.  It was truly a servant community.  With Constantine era the church was transformed into state religion of Roman Empire.  It was structurally organized with strict hierarchical forms.  The church became the dispenser of salvation that it is spiritualized and ecclesiastizied.  It began to instruct that outside there is no divine grace operative and no salvation. 

Monasticism grew as a reaction to the ‘this worldliness’ of the church.  The laity had to be passive.  Church activity became exclusive for hierarchy and monks.  Laity became silent sheep fit only to be taught and ruled.  Expansion of Empire was paralleled by expansion of the Church. Missions were a means for assimilating converts to European culture and incorporating them more fully into the colonial system.  An understanding of the Past should free us from the burdens of the past.  This must enable us to be true to the original experience on the one hand and to find an identity relevant for the present on the other.

Jose & Jossy's son is born, with Glory & Jacintha families after 10 years, with Frs.Caesar, John and Patrick in Jan.2012

The Great Famine in Gujarat 1899-1900 - Xavier James L.S.

THE GREAT FAMINE IN GUJARAT-1899-1900

Xavier James L.S.

From 1726 onwards there were three famines with intervals of 87 years in Gujarat.  People in Gujarat had suffered the worst famine in 1899-1900.  At this moment the Catholic Mission in Gujarat was a six years old babe.  It was in the Gujarati Samvad year 1956.  The monsoon failed those two years and there was no storage of food grains.  The British government helped only wherever they could reach out by the means of transportation.  Anywhere 100 K.M. away from the Railway station, people died without any food and drink.  In Saurashtra, people died like flies.  Scenes of horror were common.  This famine affected the mission work of the Catholics to some extent but God worked in his own way in his time.  The protestant missionaries like Salvation Army, Methodists, Irish Presbyterian and Missionary Alliance stopped their evangelization and worked for the human cause.  They helped the famine-affected people of Gujarat with human touch.  On the contrary the so-called good religious Hindus and Jains did not bother about the human beings, but opened hospitals for animals.  The Vaniyas ran away to Bombay to survive the famine. 

At this juncture Archbishop Daloff of Bombay acted promptly and sent two congregations of religious nuns to Gujarat mission to work for the cause of famine-affected victims.  They were daughters of the cross and local Franciscan Tertiaries.  They opened an orphanage for the orphans forsaken by their parents due to the famine.  The Catholics of Bombay helped the famine relief financially.  In four years they sent money worth 35 lakhs today.

In the streets of Ahmedabad the police found 990 orphans and got them admitted into the orphanage of sisters, out of which 466 children died, 362 were reclaimed by their parents after the famine and the police gave the remaining 101 to the sisters.  On 5^th June 1901, this institution was shifted to Anand.  Now it is called St. Francis Xavier Home.  During the famine, five missionaries also died in serving the famine victims.  There were three German Jesuit priests and two nuns.  The missionaries worked in the spirit of their Lord, with efficiency and self-sacrifice.

The expression ‘Chappaniu Christian’ is used by the upper caste people of Gujarat for the Vankar Christians.  They deride the Christians by this name.  They say that the missionaries took advantage of the famine.  However we see that these Christians witnessed the humanitarian acts done to them by the followers of Christ.  Therefore they became Christians.  They also realized that Christianity was a liberating religion.  It liberated people from the clutches of casteism, for example.

The people who criticize never bothered to help their own fellow human beings. They ended up rather in helping themselves and the animals.  

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Slum visit with His Eminence Oswald Cardinal Gracias on 31-12-2011 & Marriage of three couples in Holy Name

Catholic Church Among the fisherfolk of Southern Coast - Xavier James L.S.

CATHOLIC CHURCH AMONG THE FISHERFOLK OF SOUTHERN COAST

Xavier James L.S.

The new convert Joao Da Cruz and the lay Vicar General of Goa Michael Vaz took initiative and baptized 30,000 fishermen and women in the South India along the Arabian coast.  The fisher folk saw that the new religion was freedom giving, gave them self-identity and self worth.  This gave boost to their conversion.  They felt tremendous relief from the Muslim merchants who afflicted them. 

Since there was no one to enrich the faith of the people it was not growing and was stagnant.  Therefore in 1542, Francis Xavier wrote that they knew nothing about their faith.  Francis was a missionary on the move and went from place to place catechizing and strengthening the faith of the Christians.  This made a difference and impact on the new converts.  There were 12 priests working in these areas in the 5 missions, helping in the faith formation of the Christians.  Since they were with the people as full-pledged missionaries, people saw their hard work and the holy life. They were witnesses of Christian values.  Hence they were the models for the Christians. 

The educational institutions such as schools, boarding and seminary played an important role in the formation of the young Christians.  These institutions produced marvelous and disciplined Christians from the newly converted areas of 22 Paravar 14 Mukkuvar villages of Tutucorin and Cape Comorin.  This education gave them dignity and proper self image.

Over 50 years of hard work of those 12 missionaries and Francis Xavier Changed the image of the Christians and so in 1600 Fr. Valiganano the Jesuit provincial, after visiting these areas, wrote that they were the best Christians in India.  Their children knew catechism better than the European children.  By this time the number of Christians amounted to 1,00,000. 

At present there are 11,00,000 Catholics in these areas.  They are staunch in their faith and are proud to be called as the followers of Christ.  Over hundreds of local priests from here are working both in their native and as missionaries in North India and European countries.  Today many of them are well educated and hold good jobs because of the boost of their faith.  Catholic Church with the message and values of Christ continues to inspire people all over.   

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Masses in Dharavi slums with Fr. Philip Benzi

Monasticism in the Catholic Church - Xavier James L.S.

MONASTICISM

                                                                                               

XAVIER JAMES L.S.

INTRODUCTION

One of the most influential religious structures in the church during the patristic age was Monasticism. Suddenly young people started going to forest and desert to live a solitary life. Martyrdom came to an end in Christianity when it became a state religion.  People thought that dying to oneself is a kind of martyrdom. It was thought that going for monastic life was a white martyrdom. Green martyrdom was going to the forest and living by oneself.  It was a popular movement started by the lay faithful who took the Gospel passage seriously (Mt: 19: 22-30) to follow the Lord. 

DEFINITION

Joan Glazier defines Monastery as, “The fixed abode of a community of monks.  The name is sometimes popularly extended to the residents of communities who are not monks, such as Franciscans, Dominicans and Passionists”.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Christianity was born within Judaism.  It was one of the institutions in the Roman Empire. Christians were a tiny minority. Those who opted to be Christians were ready to put up with any kind of difficulties and persecutions. A small community in the third century became a big community in the fifth century. Through the influence of the Christian Community the emperor Constantine became a Christian. Then Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire and many became Christians. It was thought that Christianity had passport to higher offices in the empire. From being a persecuted religion it became a favoured religion. Since it was great in number, many did not follow the religion with its original teachings. Predominantly a radical group ceased to be a radical one. Christianity lost vigour. Some people were not happy with such kind of life. Some thought to leave the world and live alone (monk) in solitude. As a result there came about this institution, Monasticism.

CLARIFICATIONS

Monk comes from the Greek word Monachos, which means solitary life (mono –alone).

Dendrites are the ones who lived on the trees. Stylites are the ones who lived on the pillars. Adamites are the ones who did not wear clothes.  Hermits are the ones who live in the Desert. Anchorites are the ones who lived on the hills and in caves (Anchorite– Anchor in – withdrawal). Cenobites are the ones who lived in the community.

In the beginning there were lay people who embraced the monastic life. They were inclusive of poor peasants, uneducated people from Egypt who spoke Coptic language. It began in the East and later on went to the west. They did not have Eucharist since they were staying in the desert. When a priest passed through then they had Holy Eucharist.  We need to know for sure the possible reasons for this new institution coming into existence.

POSSIBLE REASONS

1. Monastery in the Church emerged as a reaction against the laxity in Christianity and the pomp and splendors in the Church.
2. Many early Christians were slaves and in this group they had an identity. Because the Christians spoke about the other world and good life, it gave hope for the new world.
3. Martyrdom came to an end in Christianity when it became a state religion.  People thought that dying to oneself is a kind of martyrdom. It was thought that going for monastic life was a white martyrdom. Green martyrdom was going to the forest and living by oneself.   
4. Many people were fed up with the Church growing more clergy oriented. Monasticism began as lay movement as anti clerical and as people oriented Church.
5. Many joined this group in order to avoid taxes and persecutions.
6. Some women thought that marriage was slavery and a form of oppression by men so they joined the monastic life.
7. Some found that in Egypt there was a good climate by the river of Nile, so many went for climate change.
8. Just like Jesus, some went into farthest place possible to live with Essenes.
9. Buddhism might have influenced Christianity.

NEGATIVE ELEMENTS

1. There was disdain for flesh and penance increased. Body was not respected, it was considered as something evil.
2. Monks were not missionaries, but they were busy in saving their own souls. They became self- centered.
3. They were bothered only about soul; and so soul was considered great and flesh was hated. The whole person was not taken into account.

CONTRIBUTIONS

           

            The monasteries served as reform movements.  They were instrumental for copying of the Holy Scripture the Bible.  The monasteries were mission oriented and they began spreading Christianity in England and France.  Some orders were so influential in reformation within the church.  In 910, a monastery was founded in Cluny in France, which later on became Clunic order.

PERSONS TO BE REMEMBERED

            When we speak about monasticism we need to remember some persons who really played an important role in the emergence of this new institution in the Catholic Church.

ANTONY THE HERMIT (251-356)

Anthony is considered to be the father of Christian Monasticism. He was not the founder of monasticism. Anthony was an illiterate peasant, but from a well-off family. When he was with his younger sister he heard a voice saying, “If you want to be perfect, go sell what you have and give to the poor then come and follow me”. After consulting a monk who was living near the village, Anthony literally followed the Lord. The spirituality then was ‘Flee, be silent and be calm’.

PACHOMIUS (290-346)

Pachomius became Christian at the age of 20 and led a life of a hermit. He introduced community life (Cenobitic) in the monastery. He brought about some changes in the life style of the hermits. He realized that the monks who lived in common faced many problems. It was difficult to feed many and no one was there to guide them spiritually. Community life came into existence after the example of the first Christians who lived and owned everything in common. Once a year they worked in the field and kept the earning in common. They lived in small cells. They insisted on penance, common prayers and obedience to the leader. The Monks ate together, prayed and worked together. If any priest passed by, then there was Eucharist available for the monks.

BASIL THE GREAT (CAESAREA) (300-379)

Basil was a most influential, distinguished orator. He comes from a devout family. He influenced his family members so much that both his brothers became bishops- Gregory of Nyssa and Peter. His sister Macarena became an ascetic. Basil was a well-educated person who studied in Caesarea, Athens and Constantinople. He was known for his rhetoric. He decided to be a hermit and embraced monasticism. People asked him to be the leader of the monastery. He reorganized the monastic life. He encouraged intellectual works in the monastery. Basil was involved in theological debates. People were attracted towards him and asked him to be the bishop of Caesarea. He was a busy man and involved in the life of the people. He was known for his social work at the time of plague, which prowled around at that time. He made the monks serve the people who were affected by the plague. He brought monastery nearer to the cities and towns. With him began the Outward looking spirituality. And so the monks

1. Fed the poor 2. Looked after the sick 3. Showed hospitality to the stranger 4. Taught religion to the Christians. Basil wrote the rules of the community for the smooth running of the monastery.

MARTIN OF TOURS (316-379)

He was the contemporary of Basil. He was born in Hungary to non-Christian parents. He was a military officer. He had a tremendous faith in Christ Jesus and wanted to become a Christian. About him a story is said that he gave his half coat to a poor and that night Jesus appeared to him with the same half coat. From 360AD he led the life of a hermit and many followed him. Then he became a bishop. He encouraged and promoted the hermits. He believed that ALL PEOPLE COULD BE SAVED; even the greatest sinner could be saved. He was very strict with himself but very concerned about and considerate towards others. He never forced his views on others. He was against the heretics and also against the persecution of the heretics.

AMBROSE (333-397)

Ambrose was the bishop of Milan. He founded the order of virgins. These people stayed in their families and took a public vow of chastity. They had fixed place in the cathedral. Ambrose placed the Virgin Mary as the model for the virgins.

JEROME (347-419)

Eusebius Jerome Eronimus was born to Christian parents in Italy. He was baptized at the age of 20. He was fascinated by ascetic life. He went to Egypt and came back to Rome to practice ascetic life in Rome. Jerome popularized this tradition. Some noble women began to lead such life. There were some virgins and widows in this movement. It was thought that virginity was superior to marriage, and sexuality was a hindrance to purity. Many women began to embrace monastic life and men opposed it. So Jerome left Rome and remained at Jerusalem. Then with Paula, the noble widow he founded a monastery. He became the spiritual guide and remained there for 35 years.  There he did his Latin translation of the Bible and wrote the biblical commentary. Through the generosity of Paula he could do a lot of writings. He was very harsh with others. People could not bear with him due to his verbal attacks, which were very humiliating.

AUGUSTIN (354-430)

After his conversion, Augustine embraced the monastic life at Carthage. He founded a monastery with his old friends. He educated people and philosophy was taught in the monastery. Studies became very important in the monastery. When he became the bishop of Hippo, he had an Episcopal monastery. He insisted his priests to live in community and practice chastity. There was a tendency to assimilate a priest with a monk. Priests were chosen from the monks. The rules he wrote for the monastery became the norms for many religious congregations.

EPHRAEM (390-459)

Ephraem began monastic schools and young students lived as monks. They lived in obedience. At the same time there lived Simeon the Stylite who lived above the 60 feet pillar. It is another step towards the experience of God.

JOHN OF CASSIAN (362-435)

John was instrumental in bringing monastic tradition to the west. In 415 he established a monastery in France. He combined Eastern-Western monasticisms and emphasized the role of discernment in the life of the monks. Athanasius had spread monasticism in the west from 335-346.

BENEDICT (480-547)

Benedict was an abbot. According to his name he led a good life. He is known as the father of the western monasticism and known for his rules. These rules continued for 1200 years.  He was an example to his disciples. He had house meeting and invited opinions and debates. There was time allotted for prayer, work and study of the Bible. He provided a definitive framework for monastic life that also remained flexible. He governed the monastery with prudence and humanity.

WOMEN

In the early church, the widows did not remarry, but they rendered their service to the church. Mary the sister of Pachomius began a monastery for women who had life in common. It was a new movement by the women in the church. It was more of inward looking spirituality and each one strived for one’s own salvation. Macrina the sister of Basil the great led an ascetical life. Many women joined her in this movement. Paula, a rich widow together with her daughter Estochium provided shelter and rendered help to Jerome. Then they too led monastic life. Due to her generosity Jerome could do a lot of literary works.

In this way, many religious congregations came into existence according to the need of the hour. When some one sees something lacking in certain life style, then starts a new life style. And so there came about Dominicans, Franciscans, Mendicants, Carthusians, Norbertines, Cistercians, Templars, Hospitallers etc…

CONCLUSION

Monasticism as an institution survives till today in one or the other form. As centuries passed by, many religious congregations for men and women came into existence. They have brought positive reformation and growth in the life of the Church. The emergence of monasticism has made drastic change and progress in the faith of Christians. Today also we need some renewal in the church. It is high time for us to read the signs of the time. Let us be awake, be alert for in this new age we need to be witnessing Church by challenging our life style constantly.  Let us hope and work, for in His time he makes all things beautiful.

BIBILIOGRAPHY

1.      Mircea Eliade Ed., The encyclopedia of Religion, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1987.

2.      Michael Galazier and Monika K.Helling Eds., Catholic Encyclopedia, Clareitian Publication, Bangalore, 1997.